Ostarine (MK-2866, enobosarm) is the most studied SARM: it has been tested in older adults, cancer patients and, since 2024, older adults on Wegovy. Trials at 1–3 mg a day found about 1–1.5 kg more lean mass, but two Phase 3 trials in lung cancer missed their main goals, and it lowers total testosterone, SHBG and HDL cholesterol (Dalton 2011; GTx 2014). It is not approved anywhere, and WADA bans it at all times (WADA 2026).

Below: every trial at a glance, what ostarine does for muscle, strength and fat, its side effects, the doses studied, whether it is legal in the US, UK, Germany and Australia, and links to all of our ostarine guides.

What is ostarine (MK-2866)?

Ostarine is a nonsteroidal selective androgen receptor modulator. Ostarine, MK-2866, enobosarm, GTx-024, S-22 and VERU-024 are names for the same molecule; enobosarm is the official drug name used in trials (PubChem CID 11326715; Srinath 2014). GTx developed it for muscle wasting and took it into Phase 3 (GTx 2014); Veru now tests it alongside GLP-1 weight-loss drugs (Veru 2025).

Chemical structure of ostarine (MK-2866, enobosarm)
Ostarine (enobosarm) is a nonsteroidal SARM from the same chemical family as andarine and S-23.

Like other SARMs, it binds the androgen receptor that testosterone uses, with the aim of building muscle and bone with fewer effects elsewhere. A 2026 review concludes that this selectivity is small in people and that no SARM has been approved in more than 25 years (Adolf 2026).

Ostarine research at a glance

Study Who Dose and length What it found Evidence
Phase 2, Dalton 2011 120 men over 60 and postmenopausal women 0.1, 0.3, 1 or 3 mg/day vs placebo, 86 days Lean mass +1.3 kg vs placebo on 3 mg (+0.7 kg on 1 mg, not significant). Physical function and insulin resistance improved on 3 mg. HDL fell 17% (1 mg) and 27% (3 mg). Randomized trial
Phase 2, Dobs 2013 159 men over 45 and postmenopausal women with cancer and weight loss 1 or 3 mg/day vs placebo, up to 113 days Median lean mass +1.5 kg (1 mg) and +1.0 kg (3 mg) from baseline; no change on placebo. Serious adverse events not judged drug-related. Randomized trial
Phase 1, multiple doses (EMERALD protocol 2021) Healthy young men and older men with abdominal obesity 1, 3, 10 or 30 mg/day vs placebo, 14 days Half-life 14–21 hours. SHBG and total testosterone fell with dose; free testosterone did not change in a clinically significant way. A dose-dependent ALT rise was the most common side effect. Trial (reported in a protocol)
POWER 1 and POWER 2, Phase 3 (NCT01355484; NCT01355497) 651 patients with lung cancer starting chemotherapy 3 mg/day vs placebo, 147 days Both missed their co-primary endpoints (stair-climb power and lean mass) (GTx 2014). Randomized trials
Breast cancer, Palmieri 2024 136 women with AR+/ER+/HER2- advanced breast cancer 9 or 18 mg/day, until progression Clinical benefit at 24 weeks in 32% and 29%. Grade 3/4 drug-related side effects in 8% and 16%, most often raised liver enzymes. Trial (no placebo)
ARTEST, Phase 3 (NCT04869943) Advanced breast cancer 9 mg/day Stopped in 2024 for a business decision. Trial (terminated)
QUALITY, Phase 2b (Veru 2025) 168 adults over 60 on semaglutide (Wegovy) 3 or 6 mg/day vs placebo, 16 weeks 71% less lean-mass loss than semaglutide alone; 27% more fat loss (not statistically significant). Company topline data, not yet published in a journal. Randomized trial (press release)

That adds up to more than 1,000 trial participants. The developer states that its safety database covers 27 trials and 1,581 people, a company figure we could not check (Veru 2025). Compare ostarine with every other compound in the SARMs database.

Ostarine benefits: what the trials show

Lean mass

Ostarine’s best-supported effect. Healthy older adults on 3 mg a day gained 1.3 kg more lean mass than placebo over 86 days (Dalton 2011), and cancer patients gained a median 1.0–1.5 kg over up to 113 days (Dobs 2013). In the two Phase 3 lung cancer trials, the share of patients who kept their lean mass was higher on ostarine (41.9% vs 30.4% and 46.5% vs 37.9%), but the trials did not meet their co-primary goals (NCT01355484; NCT01355497).

Bar charts of percent change in lean body mass and stair-climb power by ostarine dose versus placebo
Change in lean body mass and stair-climb power by dose in the 86-day Phase 2 trial in older adults (Dalton 2011).

Strength and physical function

Mixed. Physical function (stair-climb power) improved on 3 mg in the Phase 2 trial in older adults (Dalton 2011), but in the Phase 3 lung cancer trials stair-climb responders were 29.4% vs 24.2% on placebo in one and 19.5% vs 24.8% in the other (NCT01355484; NCT01355497). No trial has tested ostarine for strength in young, trained people.

Fat loss and cutting

Small. On 3 mg, older adults had about 0.6 kg less fat than placebo with no change in body weight, and insulin resistance improved (Dalton 2011). Its most interesting use is keeping muscle during weight loss: in Veru’s 16-week trial with semaglutide, people on ostarine lost 71% less lean mass than those on semaglutide alone, while extra fat loss was not statistically significant (Veru 2025). Our news story covers that trial: ostarine preserves muscle on Wegovy and Ozempic. For cutting and bulking, see best SARMs for cutting and best SARMs for bulking.

Ostarine for women

Women took part in several ostarine trials: postmenopausal women in the 86-day trial (Dalton 2011) and women with advanced breast cancer at 9–18 mg a day (Palmieri 2024). See SARMs for women for what is known about androgenic side effects.

Ostarine results and before-and-after reports

Trials found about 1–1.5 kg of extra lean mass over roughly three months at 1–3 mg a day. Before-and-after photos online usually involve higher doses, training and diet changes, and sometimes other compounds, so they show more than ostarine alone. Our most-read page collects them with that context: ostarine before and after.

Ostarine side effects

Side effect What was found Evidence
Lower total testosterone and SHBG In older men, total testosterone fell 6.4 nmol/L (1 mg) and 7.4 nmol/L (3 mg) vs placebo; SHBG fell on 3 mg. Free testosterone, LH and FSH did not change significantly (Dalton 2011). Trial
Lower HDL cholesterol HDL fell 17% on 1 mg and 27% on 3 mg vs placebo over 86 days; LDL did not change (Dalton 2011). Trial
Raised liver enzymes Dose-dependent ALT rise in a 14-day study in healthy men (up to 30 mg/day) (EMERALD protocol 2021). Grade 3/4 liver-enzyme rises in 3–4% at 9–18 mg/day, and high calcium in 3% (Palmieri 2024). Trial
Cholestatic liver injury Jaundice and liver injury in young men using ostarine products, sometimes with bilirubin over 30 mg/dL; one needed albumin dialysis and took 6 months to normalize (Bedi 2021; Weinblatt 2022; Mertens 2024; Koller 2021). Case reports
Liver damage and muscle breakdown with cardarine ALT up to 922 U/L and CPK up to 86,435 U/L in a 43-year-old man; recovered in about 6 weeks (Kintz 2021). Case report
Hidden in supplements FDA found ostarine and andarine in a product sold as a dietary supplement, which was recalled (FDA 2017). Regulator warning

More: SARMs side effects, are SARMs liver toxic?, ostarine gyno, SARMs and hair loss and SARMs and blood pressure. Whether ostarine causes gyno or hair loss is not established.

Does ostarine suppress testosterone?

Partly. In older men on 1–3 mg a day for 86 days, total testosterone fell by about 6–7 nmol/L compared with placebo and SHBG fell on 3 mg, while free testosterone, LH and FSH did not change significantly (Dalton 2011). A 14-day study in healthy men at up to 30 mg a day found the same pattern (EMERALD protocol 2021). In trials its effect looked milder than LGD-4033’s, where free testosterone and FSH also fell at 1 mg (Basaria 2013), but the two were tested in different groups of people.

Testosterone suppression: Ostarine compared Sarmguide score from 0 (none found) to 3 (marked suppression), based on the cited studies of each compound. "(animal)" means the score rests on animal data because suppression was not measured in men; compounds with no data at all are left out. Ostarine: Yes, partly. In older men on 1–3 mg/day for 86 days, total testosterone fell by about 6–7 nmol/L vs placebo and SHBG fell on 3 mg. Free testosterone, LH and FSH did not change significantly. A 14-day Phase 1 study in healthy men (up to 30 mg/day) also found dose-dependent drops in SHBG and total testosterone, without a clinically significant change in free testosterone.
Testosterone suppression: Ostarine comparedLGD-4033: Marked; Ostarine: Moderate; AC-262: Moderate (animal); Andarine (S4): Moderate (animal); RAD-140: Moderate (animal); S-23: Moderate (animal); MK-677: Mild; Anastrozole: None found; Clomiphene: None found; Enclomiphene: None foundNone foundMildModerateMarkedLGD-4033LGD-4033: MarkedMarkedOstarineOstarine: ModerateModerateAC-262AC-262: Moderate (animal)Moderate (anim…Andarine (S4)Andarine (S4): Moderate (animal)Moderate (anim…RAD-140RAD-140: Moderate (animal)Moderate (anim…S-23S-23: Moderate (animal)Moderate (anim…MK-677MK-677: MildMildAnastrozoleAnastrozole: None foundNone foundClomipheneClomiphene: None foundNone foundEnclomipheneEnclomiphene: None foundNone found

Source: Sarmguide compound database; Ostarine: The selective androgen receptor modulator GTx-024 (enobosarm) improves lean body mass and physical function in healthy elderly men and postmenopausal women: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial (2011).

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Higher doses, longer use and stacking change the picture, and recovery after typical user doses has not been studied. More: ostarine suppression, ostarine PCT, PCT after SARMs and the PCT and bloodwork planner.

Bloodwork: the markers that changed in trials

  • Total and free testosterone, LH and FSH, SHBG
  • Lipid panel: HDL, LDL and triglycerides
  • ALT and AST (liver enzymes) and bilirubin
  • Calcium (raised in 3% at 9–18 mg/day (Palmieri 2024))

How to read them: SARMs bloodwork guide.

Ostarine dosage: what studies used

Study Daily dose Length
Phase 2 in older adults (Dalton 2011) 0.1, 0.3, 1 or 3 mg 86 days
Phase 2 in cancer patients (Dobs 2013) 1 or 3 mg Up to 113 days
Phase 3 POWER trials (NCT01355484) 3 mg 147 days
Phase 1 in healthy men (EMERALD protocol 2021) 1, 3, 10 or 30 mg 14 days
QUALITY with semaglutide (Veru 2025) 3 or 6 mg 16 weeks
Breast cancer trial (Palmieri 2024) 9 or 18 mg Until progression

The muscle results came from 1–3 mg a day. Retail capsules are often stronger: SwissChems, for example, sells ostarine as 10 mg capsules. Doses of 5, 10 or 15 mg fall inside the range given to people in some trials, but none of those trials tested muscle in healthy young adults. Our ostarine dosage and ostarine cycle length pages set trial doses next to what users report.

Ostarine half-life

About 14–24 hours: 21–24 hours after a single dose and 14–21 hours with daily dosing, in Phase 1 studies in healthy men (EMERALD protocol 2021).

  • United States: not FDA-approved. The FDA says SARM products are illegally marketed, unapproved drugs, not dietary supplements (FDA), and a December 2025 warning letter called products sold as “Ostarine MK-2866” unapproved new drugs (FDA warning letter, 2025).
  • United Kingdom: UK Anti-Doping lists ostarine (enobosarm, GTx-024, MK-2866, S-22) among SARMs. It says no SARM is approved for human use and that SARMs are illegal to sell or advertise as food or in supplements (UK Anti-Doping).
  • Germany: the annex to the Anti-Doping Act names “Ostarin, synonym Enobosarm (S-22, MK-2866)” (AntiDopG annex). The Act bans trading in it for doping in sport and acquiring or possessing a “non-small quantity” for doping in sport (AntiDopG §2).
  • Australia: enobosarm is prescription-only (Schedule 4) and, as a SARM, in Appendix D clause 5: possession without authority such as a prescription is illegal (Poisons Standard 2026). See SARMs in Australia.

Country by country: are SARMs legal? and SARMs in Europe.

Ostarine in sport and drug tests

WADA names enobosarm (ostarine) on its Prohibited List, banned at all times (WADA 2026), and a 2024 study calls it the most abused substance in its class (Taoussi 2024). Testing is very sensitive: a single 1 µg dose, a tiny fraction of a capsule, was found in urine for up to 9 days (Walpurgis 2020), which is why contaminated supplements can cause positive tests. See how long SARMs stay in your system, SARMs drug test and SARMs and WADA.

Ostarine vs other compounds

Compound Human evidence Lean mass in trials Hormone effect in trials
Ostarine Phase 2 and Phase 3 +1.3 kg vs placebo (3 mg, 86 days) Total testosterone and SHBG down; free testosterone not significantly changed
LGD-4033 Two randomized trials +1.21 kg (1 mg, 21 days) (Basaria 2013) Total and free testosterone, SHBG and FSH down
RAD-140 One Phase 1 cancer trial Not measured SHBG down in all patients measured (LoRusso 2022)
Andarine (S4) None Not studied (rats only) LH and FSH down in rats (Gao 2005)
Cardarine (not a SARM) Short lipid trials Not measured Not a hormone drug

Head-to-head: ostarine vs LGD-4033, ostarine vs RAD-140, andarine vs ostarine and cardarine vs ostarine, or the compare tool.

Ostarine stacks

No trial has combined ostarine with another performance compound; the semaglutide trial is the only combination tested (Veru 2025). The one detailed case report of a combination, ostarine with cardarine, ended with severe liver injury and muscle breakdown (Kintz 2021). Our ostarine stacks page covers common combinations, and the stack checker shows where documented risks overlap.

Buying ostarine: is it what the label says?

Ostarine was one of the three SARMs actually found when researchers tested 44 products sold online as SARMs; overall only 52% contained any SARM and 41% matched the label amount (Van Wagoner 2017). Look for a lot-specific certificate of analysis and learn how to read a lab test. Our current pick is SwissChems, which publishes lot-specific lab reports; see our SwissChems review and where to buy SARMs.

Bottom line

Ostarine is the best-studied SARM, and the studies are consistent: about 1–1.5 kg more lean mass over a few months at 1–3 mg a day, a drop in total testosterone and HDL cholesterol, and liver-enzyme rises at higher doses. It failed its Phase 3 trials and is still not approved anywhere. Its newest use, protecting muscle during GLP-1 weight loss, is promising on company data but not yet published. In the real world, the serious harm is cholestatic liver injury, and it is banned in sport and illegal to sell as a supplement in the US, UK and Australia.

Charts

Doses used in human studies of Ostarine What the published studies used and found. These are research doses reported in the studies, not recommendations. Dots mark each dose a study tested (per-kg doses are listed in the table only).
Doses used in human studies of OstarineHealthy men over 60 and… (2011): 0.1–3 mg; Men over 45 and postmen… (2013): 1–3 mg; Patients (2014): 3 mg; Patients (2014): 3 mg; Adults over 60 (2025): 3–6 mg; Postmenopausal women (2024): 9–18 mg; Healthy young men and e… (2021): 1–30 mg0 mg10 mg20 mg30 mgHealthy men over 60 and… (2011)Healthy men over 60 and… (2011): 0.1–3 mg0.1–3 mgMen over 45 and postmen… (2013)Men over 45 and postmen… (2013): 1–3 mg1–3 mgPatients (2014)Patients (2014): 3 mg3 mgPatients (2014)Patients (2014): 3 mg3 mgAdults over 60 (2025)Adults over 60 (2025): 3–6 mg3–6 mgPostmenopausal women (2024)Postmenopausal women (2024): 9–18 mg9–18 mgHealthy young men and e… (2021)Healthy young men and e… (2021): 1–30 mg1–30 mg
Dose studiedWho took partDurationWhat the study foundSource
0.1, 0.3, 1 or 3 mg/dayHealthy men over 60 and postmenopausal women (n=120)86 daysRandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 2 On 3 mg, lean mass rose 1.3 kg more than placebo; 1 mg gave +0.7 kg (not significant). Physical function and insulin resistance improved on 3 mg. HDL fell 17% (1 mg) and 27% (3 mg).PubMed 2011
1 mg/day or 3 mg/dayMen over 45 and postmenopausal women with cancer and at least 2% weight loss (n=159)Up to 113 daysRandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 2 Median lean mass rose 1.5 kg (1 mg) and 1.0 kg (3 mg) from baseline; no change on placebo (100 people in the efficacy analysis). Serious adverse events were not judged drug-related.PubMed 2013
1, 3, 10 or 30 mg/dayHealthy young men and elderly men with truncal obesity (Phase 1)14 daysDouble-blind, placebo-controlled multiple-ascending-dose Phase 1 (G100402) Terminal half-life 14–21 hours. SHBG and total testosterone fell with dose; free testosterone did not change in a clinically significant way. A dose-dependent rise in ALT was the most common side effect.isrctn.com 2021
3 mg/dayPatients with non-small cell lung cancer starting platinum + taxane chemotherapy (POWER 1) (n=321)147 days (primary analysis at day 84)Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 3 Did not meet its co-primary endpoints. Stair-climb responders: 29.4% vs 24.2% on placebo. No lean-mass loss: 41.9% vs 30.4%.clinicaltrials.gov 2014
3 mg/dayPatients with non-small cell lung cancer starting platinum + non-taxane chemotherapy (POWER 2) (n=330)147 days (primary analysis at day 84)Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 3 Did not meet its co-primary endpoints. Stair-climb responders: 19.5% vs 24.8% on placebo. No lean-mass loss: 46.5% vs 37.9%.clinicaltrials.gov 2014
9 mg/day or 18 mg/dayPostmenopausal women with AR+/ER+/HER2- advanced breast cancer (n=136)Until progression (median follow-up 7.5 months)Randomized, open-label Phase 2 (two doses, no placebo) Clinical benefit at 24 weeks in 32% (9 mg) and 29% (18 mg). Grade 3/4 drug-related side effects in 8% and 16%, most often raised liver enzymes.PubMed 2024
3 mg/day or 6 mg/day, with semaglutide (Wegovy)Adults over 60 with overweight or obesity on semaglutide (n=168)16 weeksRandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 2b (QUALITY) Company topline result: 71% less lean-mass loss than semaglutide alone (p=0.002) and 27% more fat loss (p=0.096). Total weight loss was similar. Not yet published in a journal.ir.verupharma.com 2025

Sources: the studies linked in the table.

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Half-life of Ostarine compared Elimination half-life in people, where measured (log scale; bars show the reported range). Values from different studies and routes are not directly comparable.
Half-life of Ostarine comparedTesamorelin: ~8–11 min; Ipamorelin: ~2 h; Enclomiphene: ~8–10 h; Ostarine: ~14–24 h; Clomiphene: ~5–24 h (No single value: enclomiphene part ~5–10 h; zuclomiphene part ~24 h with a very long tail (detectable for over a month)); LGD-4033: ~24–36 h (24–36 h); RAD-140: ~45 h; Anastrozole: ~2–2.1 days (~50 h); Tamoxifen: ~5–7 days (~5–7 days (tamoxifen); ~14 days (N-desmethyltamoxifen, main active metabolite)); CJC-1295: ~5.8–8.1 days (~6–8 days)6 min30 min1 h3 h6 h12 h1 day3 days1 weekTesamorelinTesamorelin: ~8–11 min~8–11 minIpamorelinIpamorelin: ~2 h~2 hEnclomipheneEnclomiphene: ~8–10 h~8–10 hOstarineOstarine: ~14–24 h~14–24 hClomipheneClomiphene: ~5–24 h (No single value: enclomiphene part ~5–10 h; zuclomiphene part ~24 h with a very long tail (detectable for over a month))~5–24 hLGD-4033LGD-4033: ~24–36 h (24–36 h)~24–36 hRAD-140RAD-140: ~45 h~45 hAnastrozoleAnastrozole: ~2–2.1 days (~50 h)~2–2.1 daysTamoxifenTamoxifen: ~5–7 days (~5–7 days (tamoxifen); ~14 days (N-desmethyltamoxifen, main active metabolite))~5–7 daysCJC-1295CJC-1295: ~5.8–8.1 days (~6–8 days)~5.8–8.1 days

Source: Sarmguide compound database; Ostarine value: EMERALD study protocol (ISRCTN12213700, University of Liverpool, version 6.0, 2021): a window of opportunity study of enobosarm in ER+/AR+ early breast cancer (2021).

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More on Ostarine

Frequently asked questions

Is ostarine the same as MK-2866 and enobosarm?

YesEvidence: Law

Ostarine, MK-2866, enobosarm, GTx-024, S-22 and VERU-024 are names for the same molecule. Enobosarm is the official drug name used in clinical trials.

Read the full section

Does ostarine build muscle?

Yes, modestly, in trialsEvidence: Trial

Healthy older adults on 3 mg a day gained 1.3 kg more lean mass than placebo over 86 days. Cancer patients gained a median of 1.0–1.5 kg over up to 113 days.

Read the full section

Is ostarine good for cutting?

Small fat loss in trialsEvidence: Trial

Fat fell about 0.6 kg more than on placebo on 3 mg over 86 days. With semaglutide, people on enobosarm lost 71% less lean mass than on semaglutide alone, in company data not yet in a journal.

Read the full section

Does ostarine increase strength?

Mixed evidenceEvidence: Trial

Stair-climb power improved on 3 mg in older adults, but the two Phase 3 trials in lung cancer patients did not meet their physical-function goals. No trial has tested strength in young, trained people.

Read the full section

What doses of ostarine were studied?

Mostly 1–3 mg a dayEvidence: Trial

The muscle trials used 1–3 mg a day for up to about 4 months; a 14-day Phase 1 study went up to 30 mg, the weight-loss trial used 3 or 6 mg and a breast cancer trial 9 or 18 mg. Higher doses raised liver enzymes more often.

Read the full section

How long were ostarine trials?

14 to 147 daysEvidence: Trial

From 14 days (Phase 1) to 147 days (the Phase 3 POWER trials). The muscle results come from trials of 86 to 113 days.

Read the full section

What is the half-life of ostarine?

About 14–24 hoursEvidence: Trial

In Phase 1 studies in healthy men, it was 21–24 hours after a single dose and 14–21 hours with daily dosing.

Read the full section

Does ostarine suppress testosterone?

PartlyEvidence: Trial

In older men on 1–3 mg a day, total testosterone fell by about 6–7 nmol/L vs placebo and SHBG fell, but free testosterone, LH and FSH did not change significantly. A 14-day study in healthy men at up to 30 mg a day found the same pattern.

Read the full section

Does ostarine lower HDL cholesterol?

YesEvidence: Trial

HDL fell 17% on 1 mg a day and 27% on 3 mg a day vs placebo over 86 days. LDL did not change.

Read the full section

Is ostarine bad for the liver?

Liver harm is documentedEvidence: Trial

Raised liver enzymes were the most common side effect in a 14-day study, rising with dose, and the most frequent serious drug-related side effect at 9–18 mg a day. Case reports describe cholestatic liver injury with jaundice in young men using ostarine products, some severe.

Read the full section

Is ostarine legal in Germany?

Listed in the Anti-Doping ActEvidence: Law

Ostarine is named in the annex to Germany's Anti-Doping Act, which bans trading in it, or acquiring or possessing a non-small quantity, for doping in sport. It is not an approved medicine.

Read the full section

Is ostarine legal in the UK and the US?

Not legal to sell as a supplementEvidence: Law

In the UK, SARMs including ostarine cannot legally be sold or advertised as food or supplements, and none is approved for human use. In the US, the FDA says SARM products are unapproved drugs and has named products sold as ostarine in warning letters.

Read the full section

How long does ostarine stay in your system?

Half-life about 14–24 hoursEvidence: Human data

Blood levels halve in about 14–24 hours, but tests are far more sensitive: in an anti-doping study, a single 1 µg dose was detectable in urine for up to 9 days.

Read the full section

Is ostarine banned in sport?

Yes, at all timesEvidence: Law

WADA prohibits it at all times as a SARM, and a 2024 study calls it the most abused substance in its WADA class. Even contaminated supplements can cause a positive test.

Read the full section

Sources

  1. The selective androgen receptor modulator GTx-024 (enobosarm) improves lean body mass and physical function in healthy elderly men and postmenopausal women: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial 2011 · PMID 22031847
  2. GTx, Inc. Provides Corporate Update And Reports 2013 Financial Results (press release, 4 March 2014) 2014
  3. WADA: The Prohibited List (2026 List, in force from 1 January 2026) 2026
  4. PubChem: Ostarine / Enobosarm (CID 11326715), names and synonyms 2026
  5. Enobosarm (GTx-024, S-22): a potential treatment for cachexia 2014 · PMID 24490605
  6. Veru Announces Positive Topline Data from Phase 2b QUALITY Clinical Study: Enobosarm Preserved Lean Mass in Patients Receiving WEGOVY (Semaglutide) for Weight Reduction (press release, 27 January 2025) 2025
  7. Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs) in Sport: Patterns of Use, Product Contamination, Health Risks and Doping-Control Implications 2026 · PMID 42919612
  8. EMERALD study protocol (ISRCTN12213700, University of Liverpool, version 6.0, 2021): a window of opportunity study of enobosarm in ER+/AR+ early breast cancer 2021
  9. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01355484: Phase III Study of the Effect of GTx-024 on Muscle Wasting in Patients With Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (POWER 1), posted results 2014
  10. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01355497: Effect of GTx-024 on Muscle Wasting in Patients With NSCLC on First Line Platinum (POWER 2), posted results 2014
  11. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04869943: Efficacy Evaluation of Enobosarm Monotherapy in AR+/ER+/HER2- Metastatic Breast Cancer (ARTEST, Phase 3, terminated) 2024
  12. Effects of enobosarm on muscle wasting and physical function in patients with cancer: a double-blind, randomised controlled phase 2 trial 2013 · PMID 23499390
  13. Activity and safety of enobosarm, a novel, oral, selective androgen receptor modulator, in androgen receptor-positive, oestrogen receptor-positive, and HER2-negative advanced breast cancer (Study G200802): a randomised, open-label, multicentre, multinational, parallel design, phase 2 trial 2024 · PMID 38342115
  14. Drug-Induced Liver Injury From Enobosarm (Ostarine), a Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator 2021 · PMID 34368386
  15. Drug-Induced Liver Injury Secondary to Enobosarm: A Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator 2022 · PMID 35655632
  16. Liver Injury after Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator Intake: A Case Report and Review of the Literature 2024 · PMID 37871633
  17. Liver injury associated with the use of selective androgen receptor modulators and post-cycle therapy: Two case reports and literature review 2021 · PMID 34141767
  18. Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Delta Agonist (PPAR- δ) and Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) Abuse: Clinical, Analytical and Biological Data in a Case Involving a Poisonous Combination of GW1516 (Cardarine) and MK2866 (Ostarine) 2021 · PMID 34678947
  19. FDA recall notice: Tri-Ton dietary supplement recalled due to the presence of andarine and ostarine (company announcement 19 May 2017) 2017
  20. The safety, pharmacokinetics, and effects of LGD-4033, a novel nonsteroidal oral, selective androgen receptor modulator, in healthy young men 2013 · PMID 22459616
  21. FDA: Certain bodybuilding products put consumers at risk for heart attack, stroke, serious liver damage and more (content current as of 2 December 2025) 2025
  22. FDA Warning Letter to an online seller of products marketed as SARMs (MARCS-CMS 719257), 12 December 2025 2025
  23. SARMs | UK Anti-Doping (supplement ingredient warning, updated 29 April 2026) 2026
  24. Anlage zum Anti-Doping-Gesetz (AntiDopG), Germany (BGBl. 2023 I Nr. 67) 2023
  25. § 2 Anti-Doping-Gesetz (AntiDopG): Unerlaubter Umgang mit Dopingmitteln (Germany)
  26. Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—June 2026) Instrument 2026 (F2026L00633) 2026
  27. In Vitro and In Vivo Human Metabolism of Ostarine, a Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator and Doping Agent 2024 · PMID 39063049
  28. Elimination profiles of microdosed ostarine mimicking contaminated products ingestion 2020 · PMID 32959982
  29. A First-in-Human Phase 1 Study of a Novel Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM), RAD140, in ER+/HER2- Metastatic Breast Cancer 2022 · PMID 34565686
  30. Selective androgen receptor modulator treatment improves muscle strength and body composition and prevents bone loss in orchidectomized rats 2005 · PMID 16099859
  31. Chemical Composition and Labeling of Substances Marketed as Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators and Sold via the Internet 2017 · PMID 29183075